Dr W. Edwards Deming was adamant the people have a right to enjoy their work. They have a right to be treated with dignity and respect. Point 8 of his 14 points: Drive out fear.
Whether you are a school leader, classroom teacher, support staff member or student, you have a right to a fear free school. Easier said than done.
Systems and processes can create fear
The systems and processes in many organisation increase fear and anxiety. These include:
Blaming and punishing individuals for deficiencies in the system
Leaving people out of decision-making
Criticising people in front of others
Failing to give people access to the information or resources needed to do a job well
Ignoring suggestions or treating them as criticism
Offering critical feedback on performance without a simultaneous, genuine offer of support
Requiring people to undertake tasks that are unlikely to be completed successfully.
Fear has a way of creeping into organisations, even those that seek to expunge it. Vigilance and effort are required.
Our challenge
Our challenge is to create schools and classrooms where people feel safe and secure. This is not to suggest creating an environment free from responsibility or accountability, rather an environment of respect, dignity and professionalism.
You can begin by asking your staff (if you are a school leader) or your students (if you are a teacher) what causes them to feel anxious or fearful in your school / class? Then work with them to remove these barriers to joy in work and learning.
Reflection
What systems and processes in your workplace give rise to fear?
How do these get in the way of your ability to do a good job?
What practices do you participate in that could promote fear in others?
In this post, we consider how the concepts of accountability, responsibility and authority are being applied in the name of school improvement. We explain why a strong focus on tightening accountability is unlikely to result in improvement in schools (or any other organisations for that matter).
We defined accountability:
Accountability: the collection of outcomes that an individual is charged to produce and for which the individual can be held to account
The drive to hold educators to account for improving performance has become stronger in recent years. Considerable effort has been expended clarifying the accountabilities and responsibilities of school leaders across many jurisdictions.
Sadly, tightening accountabilities is unlikely to lead to improved performance.
Here’s why.
Intent
There is one benefit to be derived from clarifying accountabilities and responsibilities. Doing so makes clear what is agreed to be important and how performance will be measured. This focuses attention, which can be beneficial. This is particularly beneficial when the process of agreeing and accepting accountabilities is open and collaborative. For example, team members can agree to take on specific tasks between meetings; each agrees to be accountable to the team for their actions. This can be affirming and effective.
Where organisations take a more formal approach to assigning accountability, it becomes problematic.
Assumptions
The accountability approach to school improvement is based on many questionable assumptions.
Held to account?
What does it mean to be held to account? It can be a requirement to explain what happened, or didn’t happen. It can also mean criticism, blame and punishment. Whatever the meaning, being judged is implicit in the definition.
Routinely passing judgements upon one another is not a feature of highly trusting or collaborative relationships and can be toxic.
Sufficiently comprehensive?
Establishing the specific outcomes for which one will be held to account does focus attention, but this can be at the expense of other areas requiring attention. The approach assumes that all the important outcomes have been identified and codified into accountabilities. This is rarely achieved. The current attempts to hold educators to account for student performance based on standardised testing, for example, is leading some to focus attention on the content to be tested; this can be at the expense of other areas of learning.
It is very difficult to establish an accountability system to address all stakeholders needs.
Numerical goals and targets.
Frequently, accountabilities are expressed as numerical goals or targets, which, it is assumed, can be measured accurately. We discussed in chapter five of our book Improving Learning that numerical goals and targets can lead to distortions of the data and/or the system. Each year the newspapers report cases of teachers and schools ‘cheating’ on high-stakes tests. Unachievable numerical goals may be at the heart of the clean diesel scandal at VW.
As Dr. Deming said, “Fear invites wrong figures.”
Locus of control.
It is assumed that an individual has sufficient control over the activities and results for which they are accountable to ensure the outcomes are met. This is not always the case. A teacher, for example, can have almost no control over the home life of his or her students, which has a very significant impact on the student’s learning.
It hardly seems reasonable to be held accountable for things outside one’s control.
Stable and capable processes?
The processes in which the individuals work are assumed to be stable and capable. In other words, it is assumed that the processes are predictable and producing desirable results, making achievement of the accountabilities possible. As we highlighted in chapter two of Improving Learning:
Many processes in school education are not capable.
Motivation?
The approach is based in the assumption that individuals require extrinsic motivation. Motivation has been discussed at length in an earlier series of posts.
Extrinsic motivation factors focus attention on obtaining the rewards and avoiding the punishments; not on the intrinsic value of the tasks themselves.
Negotiated?
While there is, in theory, scope for negotiation of accountabilities, in practice many are established historically and imposed – top-down. It is the people doing the daily work of the system that best know what needs improving. In particular, they know the barriers to improvement, which can frequently only be addressed by individuals more senior to them.
Top-down imposition of accountabilities may address management’s priorities, but are likely to neglect root causes of waste, frustration and poor performance.
Interdependence.
Each individual, being held to account for specific outcomes, is based on an assumption of independent relationships within the organisation: each party acts with autonomy towards their own goals.
Relationships in organisations are far more interdependent than autonomous.
Optimisation of the whole.
A system of accountabilities across an organisation may seek to optimise the performance of the organisation as a whole; there is an assumption that optimising each part of the system will optimise the whole. As we discussed in chapter three of Improving Learning the opposite is true.
By optimising the parts, the whole will be sub-optimised.
On balance, it would appear that focussing on systems to tighten accountabilities holds little promise for delivering improvement. Not only is it difficult to develop and sustain accountability systems within organisations, doing so is based on questionable assumptions. Furthermore, to date, it has demonstrated little systemic improvement.
An alternative
If accountability is not a viable route to improved performance, what should be done instead?
The answer is as simple as it is complex:
Equip everybody so they can work with others to improve the systems of learning for which they are responsible.
The five whys tool was developed within the Toyota Motor Corporation as a means to identify the underlying causes of problems. When root causes are identified and addressed, the problem can be fixed and stay fixed.
Five whys can also be used to explore personal motivations.
The process is very simple: the issue under investigation is identified and noted. Examples: “Why are students disengaged from their learning”, “Why are we proposing to hold the meeting?”, “Why are enrolments dropping?”, “Why do we come to school?”, “Why are teachers not listening?”.
“Why?” is then asked five times (the number of repetitions is not immutable, but in most cases five repetitions have been found to be sufficient).
In this example (Figure 1), year 8 students consider why they study mathematics.
Figure 1. Five Whys: Why do we study mathematics?
Some years ago a teacher from a secondary school in Victoria told us the following story.
A class was constantly disrupted by the inappropriate behaviour of a student. Instead of responding in the usual manner by removing the child from the classroom, the teacher took the student to one side and applied the five whys tool to investigate the cause of the behaviour.
The student revealed that he found it difficult to make friends with others in the classroom, and that the behaviour was a means of getting attention and connecting with others.
The teacher worked to help the student learn strategies to develop relationships with others. This was a far more productive and longlasting solution than would have been achieved by reacting to the symptom and removing the student from the classroom.
I recently had the pleasure of completing a guided walk along the Milford Track – one of the Great Walks in New Zealand. The track passes through some of the most beautiful and pristine wilderness in the world.
During the walk, I was reflecting upon the characteristics of the guided walk that made it so pleasurable. Here are my reflections…
A clear path
The 33.5 miles of track from Glade Wharf to Sandfly Point is clearly laid out and very well maintained. Throughout the walk it was crystal clear where we were meant to go; if we stuck to the track there was little chance of getting lost.
With signposts
The track is clearly and comprehensively sign-posted. Every mile there is a numbered milepost indicating progress.
The track is clear, well maintained and there are regular mileposts.
Periodically there are signs indicating distances or estimated times to key landmarks along the route. These signs, along with the mileposts, enabled each of us to track progress and monitor the pace of our walk.
Regular sing-posts enabled us to monitor our progress
Other signs warn of potential hazards ahead, including areas of possible flooding or avalanche.
Potential hazards are sign-posted
Taken together, these signposts ensured we knew where we were, how far we had come and still had to go, points of interest, and areas where extra care might be required.
Walking at our own pace
We were encouraged to walk the track at our own pace and to take time to explore the locations we found interesting.
We took time to explore locations of interest to us, this being the Clinton River West Arm
We were also encouraged to explore some of the side tracks that had particular points of interest. This was not compulsory. The side trip to Sutherland Falls, the highest falls in New Zealand, was truly remarkable.
The base of Sutherland Falls, the highest waterfalls in New Zealand. The water falls 580m.
Walking alone, or with others
In all there were about forty of us completing this walk together.
At times I walked alone. I like to do so; it gives me time to think. There were several occasions where it felt like I was the only person on the track. I could see no-one behind or ahead of me, and I felt I had the place to myself.
At times I felt I had the track all to myself
At other times I walked and chatted with my niece, Helen, who had invited me to do the walk with her.
Occasionally, I walked and chatted with small groups of others, some of whom had travelled across the globe to walk this track.
Everyone was free to choose with whom they walked.
A team of professional guides
A team of four guides accompanied us on the walk. They worked extremely well as a team. I was particularly impressed with the way the acknowledged and drew upon their individual strengths while working together to build their individual and collective capability.
Getting to know us
Each of the guides was friendly and welcoming. They each took time to speak with each of us and get to know a bit about us. They genuinely cared about each walker and were keen to ensure everyone had the best experience possible while under their guidance.
As the walk progressed, they learned about our walking style, preferences and limitations. Which of us were the quick walkers, guaranteed to reach each milestone first? Which of us were likely to find parts of the walk particularly challenging?
Mackinnon Memorial at Mackinnon Pass. The climb up and down the pass was challenging for most of us.
Through getting to know us, the guides were able to plan and execute personalised support, where it was required.
Knowing the track
The guides know the track intimately. Collectively they had walked the track many hundreds of times.
The guides highlighted points of interest and significance along the way. They proved very knowledgeable about the flora and fauna, and took the trouble to point out and help us interpret that we were seeing. We were encouraged to be inquisitive and draw upon their knowledge and experience.
Two of our guides discuss implications of the latest weather forecast
They also knew how we might respond to the track. They know where the going is easy. They know where it’s most demanding. They know where people may experience difficulty. They also know the hazards and have strategies to minimise the associated risks.
Helping us be prepared
Each evening one of the guides briefed us on the outlook for the following day. The briefing informed us of the terrain ahead, distances involved, weather forecast, points of interest and any potential areas requiring particular care. This enabled us to plan ahead and be prepared to meet the challenges that lay before us.
The briefings also celebrated our achievements that day.
Briefings each evening celebrated our daily achievements and prepared us for the challenges of the following day.
Providing support, as required
At all times there was a guide at the front of the group. This guide checked the path was clear of hazards.
There was also a guide bringing up the rear, ensuring nobody was left behind. This guide provided encouragement and practical support to those walkers finding the terrain a challenge.
The other two guides walked between, within the group. When we encountered a hazard along the track, there was always at least one guide there to help us through safely. This occurred on three occasions: the first when the track was submerged in flood waters and twice where the track had been obliterated by avalanches.
Guides were always on hand to help us though hazardous sections of track, in this case the site of a recent avalanche.
Celebrating Achievement
Having walked more than 33 miles over four days, we arrived at our destination, Milford Sound. Our final briefing was more of a celebration, each of us receiving a certificate during a simple ceremony, then proceeding to enjoy a meal together.
The following morning, we were treated to a brief cruise through the sound before we each set off on the next stages of our respective journeys.
Dawn on Mitre Peak, Milford Sound
Learning can be like this guided walk
Schooling can be like this guided walk.
A clear path
The curriculum provides the learning path. Tools such as the Capacity Matrix and Gantt Chart put curriculum in the hands of the learners and provide signposts to support learners to plan and monitoring. Areas where special care may be required can also be highlighted.
Learning at their own pace
Once the path is clear, learners can be encouraged to progress at their own pace.
Learners can also take time to explore areas of particular interest to them, adding these to their capacity matrix and recording details of their learning.
Learning alone, or with others
Students can choose when they prefer to work alone, and when they may wish to work with others. Teams and groupings are by choice, not direction.
A team of teachers
Teachers work together as a team: acknowledging each others’ strengths and working to build their individual and collective capability. They are collectively responsible for the safety and progress of the learners.
Teachers take time to get to know the learners under their guidance: the learners’ aspirations, preferences and limitations.
Teachers know the curriculum intimately. They know where it is straightforward and where many students have difficulty. They encourage curiosity, enquiry and exploration.
Teachers equip learners with skills and tools to plan and be prepared to make the most of the learning opportunities.
Teachers provide personalised support, helping everyone who requires assistance through all sections of the track. They pay particular attention to supporting learners through sections of curriculum that most people find challenging.
Celebrating achievement
Students and teachers acknowledge and celebrate achievements along the way and in ways that are meaningful to everyone.
Do you need a step-by-step guide to targeting professional learning to develop your expert teaching team? Then follow these simple instructions to establish an evidence-based, structured process to plan, monitor and evaluate the professional development of staff in your school:
Warwick Fraser explains how he uses his Capacity Matrix and Digital Portfolio
Download a capacity matrix template. You can use the matrix in either hardcopy or digital format.
Agree with staff what they need to know, understand and be able to do to be effective in their school roles. Identify the specific skills and capacities as they relate to key concepts and methods. Insert them into the matrix template. Draw on preferred models and professional standards like the AITSL Australian Professional Standards for Teachers. Be sure to also include the capacities unique to your school system (e.g. do you have a school-based data software people need to know how to use, a behaviour management policy, a role call process?). Also consult your Strategic and Annual Plans for new developmental needs and these capacities to the matrix. In this way the matrix is a dynamic (ever evolving) document subject to ongoing review and improvement.
Have each staff member undertake a regular self-assessment using the matrix. This self-assessment can be made an integral part of your school staff performance management/development process.
Staff (like younger learners) are required to provide evidence of their learning. Evidence is recorded in the evidence column of the matrix. Staff can use a portfolio to store their evidence (in the same way as students do). This can take many forms; video footage or podcasts of teachers demonstrating good teaching practice, photos, students articulating their learning. This evidence is an effective measure of the extent to which professional learning is ultimately applied in the classroom.
Use the capacity matrix to identify individual learning goals and monitor progress towards achieving them.
Use the matrix as a basis for the induction of new staff.
Use the matrix to plan ongoing professional development. Identify those areas where a majority of staff require professional development and plan the most cost-effective way for this to be facilitated. For example, those staff who have reached mastery (or are at the wisdom level) in specific capacities can teach, coach or mentor those at lower levels of learning.
This is the final of a series of four posts to explore human motivation, and how we can encourage learners’ intrinsic motivation and engagement. These posts are edited extracts from our forthcoming book: Improving Learning: A how-to guide for school improvement.
In the previous posts we introduced the concepts of motivation, rewards, punishment, compliance and engagement. We explored a framework of factors to enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement, namely: Purpose, Choice, Mastery and Belonging.
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement: Purpose, Choice, Mastery and Belonging
In this post we conclude with an examination of the use of rewards in classrooms and how these can be substituted for working with students to identify and remove barriers to motivation and engagement.
Rewards in schools
The use of extrinsic rewards in schools and school systems is very deeply ingrained.
Many classroom teachers offer extrinsic rewards regularly as part of their behaviour management approach. From a very early age, students learn to please the teacher in order to be rewarded. Gold stars, lolly jars, student of the week, bonus points and free choice activities are offered as incentives. Teachers have been taught to do this; rewards are common practice. This diminishes the important intrinsic reward that comes from learning. Learning soon becomes more about work to please the teacher than personal growth and achievement.
When teachers are asked why they use extrinsic rewards, such as stickers, lollies, bonus points, or classroom parties, the answer is always the same. ‘The kids like them and they work!’
Questionable assumptions
There are several assumptions that can be questioned here, assumptions about efficacy and motivation.
‘The kids like rewards!’ Just because someone likes something does not mean it is good for them, or that it helps them to learn. The more important question is whether rewards aid learning, and whether they offer a superior approach when compared to alternatives.
Which kids like rewards? Obviously, the kids getting the rewards like it. There are very few people who don’t enjoy recognition, acknowledgement and being treated as a bit special. But what of those students who miss out? What of those students who are just as deserving but are not rewarded? How do they feel? Teachers are very busy watching the faces of the rewarded students and rarely notice the faces of the disappointed. Being disappointed repeatedly can be very demotivating.
When teachers say the kids like rewards, one could ask ‘compared to what?’ Certainly, they could be expected to like getting rewards when compared to the option of not getting rewards. Who wouldn’t? But what about the option of getting rewards when compared to the option of discovering and experiencing the true joy of learning? Do the students have that reference point for comparison?
What does it mean to say that the ‘rewards work’? Does this mean that student learning is enhanced by rewards? Or, does it mean that rewards encourage compliance? Most importantly, how do rewards improve learning compared to other approaches? As John Hattie is at pains to point out, nearly everything works in education; the real question is how well particular approaches enhance learning when compared to their alternatives.
Rewards create energy for … more rewards. In an environment where rewards are common, so is the question ‘What do we get for doing this?’ In some cases, rewards can actually lower achievement, as students who are motivated by extrinsic rewards will do enough to get a reward, but no more, thereby artificially limiting their potential and motivation to achieve.
Why are rewards necessary anyway? Do we really need to bribe people to do the right thing? Do people deliberately withhold best efforts and better methods waiting for the offer of a reward? Do students or teacher not try because they are hanging out for the reward to be offered? The answer to each of these questions is: ‘of course not!’
An implicit assumption behind the offer of rewards is that people need rewards because they won’t do their best without them.
Myron Tribus makes explicit reference to the damage done by extrinsic motivators in his paper When Quality Goes to School.
Quality is what makes learning a pleasure and a joy.
You can increase some measures of performance by using strong external motivators, such as grades, prizes, threats and punishments, but the attachment to learning will be unhealthy.
It takes a joyful experience with learning to attach a student to education for life. Where there is joy in learning, the effort required does not seem like work.
Traditional didactic approaches to teaching do not promote intrinsic motivation. Some teachers churn through endless programs of plan-teach-assess in the hope that students will learn. If educators truly take to heart the need and moral obligation to unlock intrinsic motivation in learners, then a different approach is required. A more collaborative approach is needed.
Every learner is different, which adds enormously to both the joy and the complexity of teaching. The breadth and depth of prior knowledge varies, interests vary from student to student, as does the sense of belonging within a class or school. The home environment varies enormously too. Some families support and strongly encourage learning; others are less committed. How are teachers supposed to manage this variation? It can be extremely difficult to teach a class where the variation in knowledge and skills is measured in years of development.
The factors discussed in the previous two posts on motivation may be seen as requiring teachers to do even more than they do currently. How can teachers be expected to assess each factor on the model for each student for each learning activity and then respond to the findings? They cannot, it is too much to ask, even with small class sizes. This is not what we are advocating.
However, if teachers equip students to take responsibility for their learning and if teachers work with the students to adapt classroom processes, motivation and engagement can be continually improved.
Collaborating to remove barriers
Teachers and students can learn to work together in a more interdependent manner than the traditional student-teacher dependent relationship. This has been shown not to be additional work for teachers, just a different way of approaching their role. The key is to work with the students, which requires different relationships and the use of tools to support the collaboration.
This begins in the classroom, where students can work with the teacher to identify and remove barriers to motivation, engagement and learning. Students and teacher together explore the factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement, and the degree to which they are evident in the school’s systems of learning. Together they develop and trial new tools and methods, make changes and observe the impact. In this way, they collaborate to study and improve the systems of learning that so profoundly affect them.
A Capacity Matrix is an example of a very useful tool. It helps learners understand what is to be learned and allows them to set goals and track progress.
Working with students to improve the system of learning opens new possibilities. Learning plans are routinely developed for students exhibiting special needs, but more recently there have been calls for all students to have individualised learning plans. Requiring teachers to develop the traditional individual learning plan for each of their students and then managing each plan is a practical impossibility. In the current system, teachers simply do not have the time to do this well for large numbers of students. But, there is nothing stopping students from learning how to develop and monitor their own individual learning plans.
Capacity Matrices can be used as the basis for individual learning plans for all students. Not only do the matrices make explicit what the students are expected to know, understand and be able to do, they significantly enhance intrinsic motivation. By design, their use is consistent with the factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and improvement. Capacity matrices make the aim or Purpose clear, students are given Choice in how they go about their learning, the matrices are explicitly designed to develop and demonstrate Mastery, and students’ sense of Belonging in enhanced through collaboration, feedback and support.
This is the third of four blog posts to explore human motivation, and how we can encourage learners’ intrinsic motivation and engagement. These posts are edited extracts from our forthcoming book: Improving Learning: A how-to guide for school improvement.
Over the past decade we have drawn upon a wide range of research as well as our own experience to develop the following framework of factors that can enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement.
In the previous post, we explored this framework with a focus on the first two key factors: purpose and choice. In this post we discuss the other two key factors, namely mastery and belonging.
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement: Purpose, Choice, Mastery, Belonging
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement
Purpose
Meaning
Advancing my interests and passions. Making a positive difference to me or others
Relevance
Pertinent to me, my situation and my future
Possibility
Accepting what is to be accomplished and uncovering the potential of what could be achieved
Choice
Responsibility
Committing to the task. Experiencing a sense of authority. Being relied upon by others
Autonomy
Selecting methods and resources, defining quality standards and determining time-lines and milestones
Creativity
Exploring and expressing thoughts, skills, imagination and individuality
Mastery
Challenge
Finding the task interesting, compelling and achievable
Achievement
Monitoring one’s own progress and performance. Celebrating learning and success
Learning
Trying things, making mistakes, developing new skills and finding different ways of thinking
Belonging
Collaboration
Enjoying interdependence, working towards shared goals and experiencing authentic teamwork
Feedback
Giving and receiving constructive feedback and encouragement
Support
Recognising skills and abilities in one’s self and others. Sharing, helping, learning together. Being free of fear
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement
The factors identified in this framework are generic in that they apply, to varying degrees, to everyone. It is a model of common causes. By building these into our systems, we tap into intrinsic motivation.
Let’s look more closely at the last two groups of factors…
Promote mastery
Mastery is about building capacity, capability and competence. In order to develop mastery an individual needs to: be challenged (just the right amount, not too much, not too little), monitor and celebrate their achievements, and learn as they go.
Challenge
For an activity to pose any challenge, it must be interesting to those doing it. Without interest there can be no challenge. (Note that interest is different to relevance and meaning).
Activities that place too much demand on the skills and abilities of an individual can lead to a loss of interest because the activities are deemed to be too difficult and the outcome unachievable. Activities that place insufficient demand are deemed boring.
Getting the level of challenge just right can make a task compelling: unlocking high levels of intrinsic motivation. (Vygotsky referred to this as the zone of proximal development).
The right degree of challenge, with interest, can be a motivator. Too much challenge or too little challenge can be a de-motivator.
Achievement
Monitoring one’s own performance, and celebrating growth and accomplishments along the way, is what achievement is all about. Seeing progress can be highly motivating; to fail to see progress can be de-motivating.
Learning
Everyone is born with a passion for learning. Learning is as natural as breathing. Humans find great joy in trying new things, developing new skills, building on existing capabilities and exploring new ways of thinking. Learning contributes greatly to one’s sense of mastery and can be a powerful intrinsic motivator.
Foster a sense of belonging
The factors that comprise belonging are different in nature to the three previous groups: purpose, choice and mastery. They all relate in some way to the relationship between the individual and the activity: can the individual see purpose in the activity, are they afforded choice as they approach the activity and does the activity build mastery?
This set of factors recognises that humans are social beings and that a good deal of learning goes on in a social context: in a social system. Also, we have a deeply felt need to belong and to feel connected to others. There are factors within social systems that can enhance motivation and others that can suppress motivation. These factors relate to a sense of belonging.
Collaboration
The joy that comes from working closely and effectively with others towards a shared goal can be highly motivating. It takes time, skill and effort to learn to work with others in a truly cooperative manner. When this is achieved, the results can be spectacular and the experience highly memorable. There is little doubt that much more can be achieved working in collaboration with others than can be achieved working alone.
Feedback
Feedback is an essential feature of every self-regulating system. Knowing where we are, where we would prefer to be, and immediately using the comparison of these two pieces of information to decide what to do next is critical to our sense of wellbeing.
In a social system, individuals give each other signals (feedback) that can be used to adapt behaviour and performance. Where this is done in a caring, constructive and encouraging manner, it can fan the flame of intrinsic motivation. Where feedback is given in a critical, malicious or spiteful way, it can be dispiriting and deeply de-motivating.
Learning can be accelerated with feedback. When a teacher works with a student to help them reflect upon the task, their learning processes and their metacognitive approaches, this feedback can significantly improve learning. Similarly, when students provide constructive feedback to a teacher about how their teaching is affecting their learning, this feedback can be of enormous value to the teacher. Such feedback enhances an individual’s capacity to manage their learning, which is highly motivating.
Support
Recognising the contribution, progress and abilities of others is a first step in offering support to them. Offering to share, help and learn together can significantly boost the motivation of an individual.
In the next post in this series, we examination of the use of rewards in classrooms. We also discuss how these can be substituted for working with students to identify and remove barriers to motivation and engagement.
We encourage you to discuss these ideas with your colleagues. If you are a teacher, you may wish to explore these concepts with your students. If you are really game, you may like to ask your students (and colleagues) the degree to which these factors are evident within your systems of learning. Furthermore, you could seek suggestions regarding improvements to the systems of learning to enhance motivation and engagement.
This is the second of four blog posts to explore human motivation, and how we can enhance learners’ intrinsic motivation and engagement. These posts are edited extracts from our forthcoming book: Improving Learning: A how-to guide for school improvement.
In this post we discuss the personal nature of human motivation and introduce a framework of factors to enhance learners’ intrinsic motivation and engagement. We focus upon the first two key factors, namely purpose and choice, as keys to unlocking intrinsic motivation and engagement.
Motivation is personal
One of the biggest challenges in coming to understand human motivation is the highly personal nature of it. Something you may find compelling others find tedious. The factors that enhance my motivation can be very different to those that enhance yours. Factors that demotivate me may have little effect on you.
The rewards and threats of punishments needed to stimulate action vary enormously from person to person too. Factors that drive deep engagement also vary.
How can teachers be expected to motivate their students? How can principals be expected to motivate their teachers? How can anyone be expected to motivate another individual? In short, they cannot!
We simply cannot motivate others.
Despite this fact, most of us have been taught that a key aspect of a leader’s job is to motivate others. This is particularly true of teachers, which is unfortunate. While teachers can certainly inspire, support, encourage and mediate the learning of their students, they cannot motivate them. However, the systems and processes they put into place in their classrooms can de-motivate them.
High degrees of engagement and intrinsic motivation come from the drive within each individual. Yet, we continue to build extrinsic motivation factors, such as rewards and punishments, into the structure and operation of our systems. In doing this, we damage intrinsic motivation.
If it is not possible to compel others to become engaged, how can we maximise engagement and intrinsic motivation?
Teachers manage systems of learning. In order to maximise motivation and learning, teachers need to identify and remove the de-motivators: the barriers to learning, and create a systemic environment that maximises the factors that unlock intrinsic motivation and enhance learning.
Over the past decade we have drawn upon a wide range of research as well as our own experience to develop the following framework of factors that can enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement. This model draws on the work of Deming, Kohn, Herzberg, Langford, Scholtes, Senge, Pink and Hattie.
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement
Purpose
Meaning
Advancing my interests and passions. Making a positive difference to me or others
Relevance
Pertinent to me, my situation and my future
Possibility
Accepting what is to be accomplished and uncovering the potential of what could be achieved
Choice
Responsibility
Committing to the task. Experiencing a sense of authority. Being relied upon by others
Autonomy
Selecting methods and resources, defining quality standards and determining time-lines and milestones
Creativity
Exploring and expressing thoughts, skills, imagination and individuality
Mastery
Challenge
Finding the task interesting, compelling and achievable
Achievement
Monitoring one’s own progress and performance. Celebrating learning and success
Learning
Trying things, making mistakes, developing new skills and finding different ways of thinking
Belonging
Collaboration
Enjoying interdependence, working towards shared goals and experiencing authentic teamwork
Feedback
Giving and receiving constructive feedback and encouragement
Support
Recognising skills and abilities in one’s self and others. Sharing, helping, learning together. Being free of fear
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement
Factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement
The factors identified in this framework are generic in that they apply, to varying degrees, to everyone. It is a framework of common causes. By building these into our systems we tap into intrinsic motivation.
Let’s look more closely at the first two groups these factors…
Create purpose
Of the four groups of factors that can enhance motivation and engagement, purpose is perhaps the most personal. Purpose relates to the nature of the task. Things that abound with meaning, relevance and possibility for one person can be totally devoid of purpose for another.
Meaning
Activities that tap into an individual’s interests and passions result in greater drive than activities that do not. Most people are driven to do things that will make a positive difference for themselves and in their own lives. Most individuals also derive meaning from making a positive difference for others in the world. Finding a sense of meaning in a task or activity can be a strong motivator. Meaning inspires passion and commitment. Meaning unlocks intrinsic motivation.
Relevance
To be driven to action, that action needs to bear some relation to the life of the individual. Actions that accord to the circumstance and needs of the individual provide greater intrinsic motivation than those that do not. Lack of relevance is a de-motivator; ask any teenager (or teacher participant of a professional learning workshop!).
Possibility
Possibility relates to the extent to which an individual uncovers and ‘buys into’ a vision of what might be possible. As a first step, the potential of an activity must be clearly understood and accepted. What could be the benefit of this? What would it look like to do this superbly well? Failing to see the possibility in a task is usually de-motivating.
Collectively, these three factors – meaning, relevance and possibility – help the individual understand: what is to be done, why it should be done, how it relates to the individual and the individual’s future, what can be achieved, and how pursuit of the activity matters in the larger scheme of things.
Provide choice
These factors relate to the extent to which the individual has a sense of control over tasks. These factors consider the degree to which the task offers the opportunity to practice responsibility, enhance skills of self-management, and exercise creativity and self-expression. Not feeling in control leads to anxiety. Anxiety is a major barrier to intrinsic motivation and learning.
Responsibility
Being given the authority to get the job done and doing what it takes to do the job well is what responsibility is all about.
Following someone else’s directive is very different to accepting responsibility. Some managers complain that their employees don’t accept responsibility. Parents and teachers make the same complaint about children. Some principals complain about teachers. What they are frequently saying is that people will not do as they are told, rather than people are failing to exercise responsibility!
Being afforded the authority to engage with a whole task, not just bit of it, and developing a sense of being needed by others can enhance motivation. Not being given the authority necessary to take responsibility is de-motivating.
Autonomy
While responsibility is about accepting one’s role in the completion of an activity, autonomy is about exercising choice regarding the activity itself and in how the activity is handled.
To act autonomously is to make choices about the activities, methods and resources to be used, which include establishing a schedule and then self-managing that schedule. To act autonomously is also to participate in defining the quality standards – the criteria by which the quality of the activity will be measured.
With autonomy comes a sense of control. Exercising autonomy can unlock intrinsic motivation.
Creativity
Creativity goes beyond taking on a task and choosing how it will be managed, into the realm of individual expression. The freedom to explore one’s own imagination, thoughts and skills in applying them to a task can be highly motivating.
Mastery and Belonging
In subsequent blog posts, we will expand upon the remaining two groups of factors – Mastery and Belonging – and contrast the use of reward in classrooms with identifying and removing barriers to learning and improvement.
Until then, we encourage you to discuss these ideas with your colleagues. If you are a teacher, you may wish to explore these concepts with your students. If you are really game, you may like to ask your students (and colleagues) the degree to which these factors are evident within your systems of learning. Furthermore, you could seek suggestions regarding improvements to the systems of learning to enhance motivation and engagement.
If you have observations, suggestions or questions, please share your comments!
This is the first of four blog posts to explore human motivation, and how we can seek to enhance learners’ intrinsic motivation and engagement. These posts are edited extracts from our forthcoming book: Improving Learning: A how-to guide for school improvement.
In this post, we introduce the concepts of motivation, rewards, punishment, compliance and engagement.
Subsequent posts introduce a framework of factors to enhance intrinsic motivation and engagement. The final post questions the use of rewards in schools and explores how teachers and students can collaborate to remove barriers to intrinsic motivation and engagement.
Motivation
Let’s begin with a few operational definitions:
Motivation: Stimuli or drive for action.
Intrinsic motivation: stimuli or drive for action coming from within an individual.
Extrinsic motivation: stimuli or drive for action coming from sources external to the individual.
Notice that these definitions refer to the locus of control for action – the drive for action coming from within the individual, or from factors external to the individual.
Intrinsic vs. Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation originates within an individual and stems from the inherent interest and enjoyment to be found in undertaking a task or activity. The pleasure to be derived from the activity can be sufficient motivation to do it.
Extrinsic motivation stems from something that is separate from the activity or task being undertaken. Someone goes to work at a job they dislike just to get paid; this is extrinsic motivation. Commonly the thing being sought is some form of reward, as is the case of working only for the money. People can also undertake activities in order to avoid punishment. There are very few people, for example, who find pleasure in paying their income tax bill. Most people pay taxes because they see it as an obligation and they wish to avoid additional fines and other forms of punishment!
In short, intrinsic motivation stems from sources within the individual, extrinsic motivation from sources external to the individual.
Unfortunately, in Australia and elsewhere, most attempts to improve schooling continue to focus on extrinsic motivators, most notably rewards and punishments.
Rewards
Let us clarify what is meant by a reward.
Reward: a desired object or experience that is conferred upon an individual or group contingent upon certain criteria being met
A reward is conditional. If specific conditions are met the reward is given, if they are not met the reward is not conferred. Some refer to these as contingent rewards or ‘if-then’ rewards.
A reward may be a tangible object. Students can be rewarded with a sticker, stamp or lollipop issued by their teacher. Employees are paid for their efforts.
A reward may be a tangible experience. Parents may promise their children a trip to the movies at the weekend on the condition that they are good during the week.
A reward may also be a positive physiological or psychological experience. Pleasure can be found in the sensations that come from physical exercise. Most people experience a sense of joy from achieving challenging and meaningful goals.
Rewards can be intrinsic or extrinsic.
Intrinsic rewards derive directly from meeting the criteria associated with the task itself. The act of creating a magnificent image can be intrinsically rewarding for a photographer; the criteria relate to achieving a superb image. The pleasant sensations of physical exercise derive directly from the exercise itself. Others’ responses can have an impact on the individual, but this is separate from the intrinsic reward derived from the task itself.
Extrinsic rewards are objects and experiences that are separate to meeting the criteria associated with the task. A visit to the cinema is only related to good children’s behaviour in that it is the reward on offer. Another key feature of extrinsic rewards is that they are offered by someone external to the individual being rewarded. Implicit here is an extension of the simple ‘if-then’ notion to one of ‘if you do this, then I will do that’. This has significant implication for relationships.
In the presence of extrinsic rewards, an individual’s focus is drawn to the reward. By definition, extrinsic rewards are offered to drive individuals to take action. The desirable nature of the reward captures the attention of the individual and elicits action. The greater the reward: the greater the focus. Unfortunately, an unintended consequence of using an extrinsic reward is that the focus is not so much on the task, but rather on gaining the reward.
Extrinsic rewards divert attention from the task to the reward.
Punishments
Another source of extrinsic motivation is punishment.
Punishment: a negative or unpleasant experience that is imposed upon an individual or group in response to behaviour that is deemed to be unacceptable
Punishments, like extrinsic rewards, are conferred upon an individual or group by other individuals or groups. Some form of authority imposes punishments, be that a court of law, a government ‘official, a parent, guardian or teacher. Like extrinsic rewards, punishment is contingent on certain criteria being met. Unacceptable behaviour is nearly always the ‘criteria to be satisfied’ in order for the punishment to be imposed.
A key feature of both punishments and rewards is that they are bestowed or imposed upon the individual by other individuals or groups. This has profound implications for the nature of the relationship between the individual being punished or rewarded and those dishing out the treatment. Offering punishments and rewards reinforces dominance in the relationship.
In the classroom, extrinsic rewards and punishments are used to the detriment of learning. They take the learners’ attention away from the inherent joy and intrinsic reward from learning, and they focus attention on either obtaining the rewards and avoiding the punishments.
Compliance
Consider the logical extremes of pure extrinsic and pure intrinsic motivation. While nearly all motivation is the result of a combination of intrinsic and extrinsic factors, conisderation of the further reaches of such a continuum provides valuable insight.
At one end of the continuum is compliance.
Compliance: submission to the will of others
Handing your money to an armed bandit is an act of compliance. Paying a speeding fine is an act of compliance. Submitting assignments and doing homework can be acts of compliance. The key feature of compliance is that the stimuli and drive for action come from sources external to the individual; the individual is extrinsically motivated to comply. Thus, extrinsic motivation can lead to compliance.
However, individuals can also choose not to comply. They may, for whatever reason, decide that they will not submit. For the most part, this is done after careful consideration of the consequences. In this way, extrinsic motivation can also lead to defiance.
Thus, extrinsic motivation factors lead to either compliance or defiance.
Engagement
At the other end of the continuum from compliance is engagement.
Engagement: enthusiastic commitment of attention, effort and care
The keen gardener, who spends numerous hours each week tending to the plants and flowers, demonstrates engagement. The adult who persists with a Sudoku puzzle until it is solved demonstrates engagement. Students with a love for learning also demonstrate engagement.
Engagement defined
The enthusiasm to commit to a task or activity and the choice to devote care, attention and effort can only come from within. It may be possible to force compliance to complete a task or activity; it is not possible to force engagement.
The prevailing system of management
There is a wealth of evidence from research across the globe that indicates that intrinsic motivation and engagement with learning typically decline with a child’s progress through the current schooling system. It also seems that many fail to reclaim their intrinsic motivation after it has been suppressed through schooling. A large global study of nearly 11,000 workers world-wide, undertaken by Blessing White in 2011, found that fewer than one in three employees world-wide are engaged. It would seem that the diminishing engagement that teachers observe through the school years extends into work life. The obvious question stemming from the evidence of a decline in engagement over time is ‘what is causing it’?
The answer is the prevailing system of management.
The prevailing system of management across the western world is driving a loss of engagement in organisations and communities. It pays insufficient attention to the factors that enhance intrinsic motivation and engages in practices that systematically deprive individuals of joy in work and learning.
This was constantly emphasised by Deming.
One is born with intrinsic motivation, self-esteem, dignity, cooperation, curiosity, joy in learning. These attributes are high at the beginning of life, but are gradually crushed by the forces of destruction. W. Edwards Deming, (1993) The New Economics, p125
In the following posts in this series, we examine what we can do to turn the tide on these forces of destruction and enhance learners’ motivation and engagement.
